Parochial schools have played a very important part in the development of the foreign-language communities. Great effort has been made to build them up, in some localities they are used to transmit much of the culture of the old homeland.

The problem of giving adult immigrants an opportunity to improve their education has always been an important one, particularly in those communities in which the educational level is extremely low. Many had little or no schooling in the old country and got their first real chance for training in America. Not all communities have appreciated the necessity of raising the educational level of their members. But awareness of the advantages of additional education for adults is growing.

All expressions of opinion for or against adult education should be given this code or cross reference. This includes efforts to get persons interested in night school, free classes, etc. Material coded II B 2 f (Special Schools and Classes) and II B 2 g (Forums, Discussion Groups and Lectures) which refers to adult education should be given this cross code.

Each community has its own point of view on the use of alcoholic liquors and narcotics, which it has not hesitated to express. In many sections the point of view of the homeland has been transferred to this country more or less completely. It should be noted, however, that this section of the outline has reference to temperance and total abstinence. In other words, the practice of the individual or the practice of the community, not the law of the land, is the point at issue.

From the time of their settlement, the colonies which coalesced to form the United States tried to solve certain questions of human conduct by legislative enactment. It is not a long step from the compulsory church attendance laws of the Massachusetts Bay Colony to the prohibition of alcoholic beverages in our lifetime.

This tradition is different from that of most of the foreign peoples who came to live in America. Their reactions have influenced the course of our legislation to a great degree. In large part their attitude accounts for the anti-prohibition sentiment which flourished in large cities while the Eighteenth Amendment was part of the Constitution.

This section refers not only to the prohibition of alcohol, but to Sunday Laws and all sumptuary legislation.

Contemporary America has seen many problems arise which are closely connected with the family unit. An increase in divorce, the changed relationship of the younger to the elder generation, the employment of women in industry have forced a revision of seemingly age-old standards, with resulting bitter debate. Many migrants find themselves torn between the practices of the society in which they live and traditions which they brought with them from other lands, usages which are often completely at variance with those of their present home. Naturally, compromises between these differing traditions have developed.

Many groups, such as the Jews and Greek Orthodox Christians, brought with them religious customs which they prized and desired to follow. Some of these ways had to be fitted into a new culture, which resulted in many difficulties. For example, Jewish dietary laws have resulted in a Kosher food industry. The Russian Orthodox Christian cannot have in this country the tremendous number of religious holidays he enjoyed at home, since American industry, in which most Russians work, does not permit so many vacations. All these things affected the outlook of the immigrants, were discussed by them, and were taken up by their press. We want to know how they adjusted themselves, what compromises were necessary, and what syntheses the generations born in this country have affected.

Labor organizations have wielded great influence in most of the foreign-language communities since their members are strongly represented in industry. Sometimes in national unions, oft-times in locals of their own nationality, the immigrants have fought for better working conditions and higher wages. Of course, there are sections in some communities, particularly the older and economically stronger, which oppose unions in the same fashion as the "American" bourgeoisie. Some groups, however, are simply not interested in them. But, on the whole, the labor union plays an important part in the foreign-language community.

Attempts are made at each election to swing foreign-language communities as for one party or the other. Under this section of the outline should be all material which reflects the opinion of the groups concerning bloc voting. Of course, opposition to such voting should be included as well.

In every group societies have been formed which were frankly devoted to politics, or which had a social "front" but pursue political aims before elections. Some are firmly established; others are the property of ambitious men anxious to dip into the campaign funds of the great parties. What is their relation to the political set-up within the community; what do the people think of them; do they exercise real leadership? This subsection of the outline is devoted to these problems.

The political aims of the community, primarily as they relate to the city and state, are to be placed here. Often the question may arise as to whether the group or its leaders has had any integrated program at any given period of the community's history. Any program which the community is asked to adopt as its special interest, such as opposition to prohibition among Germans and Czechs , can be considered a group program.

Please note again that this subdivision relates to the aims and purposes of local foreign-language communities, not to the policies of prominent political figures outside the groups or political parties in general.

We wish to discover all evidence of the extent of the political influence of various communities. For example, the Poles have become so powerful that both of the major parties invariably nominate Polish candidates on their city and state tickets. Street names have been changed to suit the wishes of the Polish community ( Pulaski-Crawford Avenue controversy ). Over a period of years it should be possible to trace the development of the influence of various communities. On the other hand, some of these have little or no political power and care must be taken to code (or cross reference) under this subsection all opinions regarding this lack of influence or other material bearing on it. This subdivision also has reference to the political influence of individual members of the community.

Here we desire to assemble material showing the political leadership (or lack of it) exercised by the community or its individual members in city and state affairs. Thus, Anton Cermak is the outstanding example of a Czech political leader. By political leadership we mean the ability to conduct public affairs a course which seems desirable to the groups, or to individuals within it.

This subsection is the widest in the section devoted to politics. It includes graft in city, state and national governments. What is the attitude in the community toward the "fix", the stealing of public funds, or the use of public office for private gains? Naturally, opinion on these matters differs widely within each community and we want to show the varying shades of thought on these issues. Actions are important here. If Zintak, a Pole , can admit the theft of city funds and still keep a large part of his political influence, there must be a section of that community in which the man himself outweighed hid deeds.

Under this subsection should be coded all notes showing an attitude toward honesty in public office.

The participation of members of the communities in any of the recognized professions, such as medicine, law, and teaching, are to be coded here. If the editor is in doubt as to whether any activity is a profession he must get a ruling on the question from his supervisor.

The material under this code is important since it gives significant data on the economic and social position of the community at various periods. Most immigrants, upon arrival in America, went into the ranks of common labor or small business. It was only after their economic position was more firmly estalbished that they were able to enter the professions. In this country professional status has always carried a certain social prestige. Therefore, many immigrants were anxious to gain this position, which made them of even more importance within their own communities.

All items concerning the participation of immigrants and their children in American business and industry, in the capacity of skilled and unskilled labor, as white-collar help, or in executive capacities, should be coded or cross-referenced here. The same code should be given to businessess and industrial establishments owned and operated by members of any community. Material concerning the construction of factory buildings, business buildings (stores, offices, etc.), and two or more dwellings by the same person should be given this code as cross reference. They will be given II F as the main code.

Contributions made to the artistic life of Chicago by the foreign-language communities have been extremely significant. Exhibits, All-Chicago Music Festivals, dance recitals, and concerts have brought to the people of this city the native art of many of the communities within its borders. That this rich and variegated display is not better known is a serious indictment of our cultural pretensions, and is partly the fault of the communities themselves since they have not always tried to attract the interest of the remainder of the city.

Only items dealing with professionals--persons who make all or part of their living these pursuits--should be coded in the subsections under II A 3.

Most foreign communities have completely assimilated the American interest in sports of all kinds. Athletic clubs have been organized to keep the children out of the street, to promote physical well-being, and for pure enjoyment. The young people are particularly influenced by activities of this nature.

All reference to athletics should be coded here. In some cases cross-references will be necessary, since there will be a connection between this code and II E 3 (Crime Prevention) . Routine reports of athletics, unless they have especial significance, should be rejected. Opinions of the value of sport activities should also be placed in this subsection.

The immigrants, particularly those who came to this country for economic reasons, soon realized the insecurity of the American industrial system. Although their wages represented undreamed wealth in the old country, there was no certainty of employment and savings were rapidly exhausted when there was no work. On the other hand, at home the close-knit peasant family had aided its destitute members when misfortune resulted in hardships.

To protect themselves and their families in times of economic stress, the newcomers developed the "Mutual Benefit Society" . Such organizations are based on the principle of the strength of numbers. If each member, when he is able, pays a small sum at regular intervals into a central fund, then when he needs aid the fund can render assistance through lump-sum or periodic payments. Such organizations have had tremendous influence in almost every immigrant community. A large number of organizations, created for other purposes, have added this feature; others have been created for this purpose alone. They render every type of aid: Burial assistance, sick benefits, and payments at the death of members. In the latter instance the organization resembles an insurance company (see next code ). In some instances members make specified payments; in others they are assessed when funds are needed. Some organizations make lump-sum payments, others make payments periodically for a stated time.

It must be remembered that these bodies quite often engage in other activities--educational, political, and social, etc. In order to make available all the activities of mutual aid societies notes on these other phases of their work should be given this cross-reference. For example, a play presented by the "Russian Independent Mutual Aid" should receive II B 1 c(1) as a main code and II D 1 as a cross code.

As communities gained in numbers and strength insurance companies organized within the groups began to take over some of the functions of the mutual aid society, although they have not ousted this type of organization. Sometimes considerable research may be necessary to discover whether the organization is an insurance company in the true sense of the term or a mutual benefit society. In general, insurance companies must be firmly established bodies, incorporated as such (although mutual aid organizations also are usually incorporated), operating under the insurance statutes of Illinois and employing recognized actuarial practices.

Again, it should be remembered that organizations pursuing other aims have recognized insurance sections. The Polish National Alliance is an excellent example. Be careful to distinguish between the insurance company and the mutual aid or burial assistance society.

All types of medical assistance which the groups have developed should receive this classification. Frequently the more formal types of medical aid--hospitals and clinics--are beyond the community's financial power. But in many such colonies physicians make a special effort to improve health standards and do a tremendous amount of charity work. A good illustration of this is the Russian community, where the physicians, who are high among the leaders of the group, have done much to help the pitifully ignorant immigrants. Some religious denominations have organized hospitals and nursing orders.

Emphasis here should be placed not on prevention of disease (for this see I M ) but the organization of medical aid, whether for charity or for profit.

Considerable effort has been made to provide care for orphans, especially by organizations and religious denominations. Many of these maintain large orphanages which care for the children of their deceased members.

Creches where working mothers can leave their children have been set up in a few instances. Such institutions are important in a community where many wives are forced to seek employment.

Such institutions, as well as orphanages, are an evidence of a sense of social responsibility and a sign of economic strength. Old people's homes, as is the case with institutions for orphans, are usually financed and administered by societies and churches. In some cases organizations are set up for this specific purpose.

Efforts have occasionally been made to establish a center where members of a community could read, play games, hold study groups, exercise, and give entertainments. Such centers, in order to be successful, require financial support and group cooperation. Note that only material on settlement houses and community centers established in whole or in large part by group funds are to be coded here. Such institutions as The University of Chicago Settlement and Northwestern University Settlement receive their support chiefly from outside the communities they aid and are, therefore, not to be given this code.

Immigrants in a strange land or poor persons unable to pay for assistance are at a great disadvantage when dealing with the courts and police. When the individual is unfamiliar with his rights and does not have the money to hire legal talent grave miscarriages of justice may result. In many foreign-language communities legal aid organizations have been formed which furnish assistance free or for a nominal charge.

Editors must be careful not to include in this section articles devoted wholly to legal aid bureaus established outside the community (newspapers, settlement houses).

Difficulties in obtaining employment have been partially smoothed out by employment agencies established in the colonies. These are sometimes private enterprises, but more often are sponsored by organizations as a service to their members and the public. If he seeks employment through an agency directed by persons of his own nationality, the applicant avoids many of the troubles arising from lack of familiarity with the English language, American industrial life, and national prejudices.

Among certain nationalities there has developed a type of extra-legal organization which has wielded great and often illegal power. An excellent example is the "Mafia" or "black-hand" in the Italian communities in this country. This organization, imported from the homeland, at one time exercised such influence as to be considered almost an invisible government. However, do not confuse the Italian organization with the Czech "mafia", which was a revolutionary organization set up during the first World War .

Gangs and other criminal groups are not to be considered as extra-legal organizations but are to be coded II E 1 .

Foreign-language communities in Chicago have raised and expended huge sums for the relief of distress in their old homelands and among persons of their nationality in the United States. The Polish colony collected money to aid in the restoration of Poland after the World War ; Jews have raised millions to help their people throughout the world; and Russians have helped their compatriots who were driven into exile after the Revolution. Sometimes these contributions have been expanded through the Red Cross; on other occasions it was given through organizations in the homeland or directly to the needy.

Many kinds of such assistance--relief of war devastation, famine, disasters, and many others--will be coded or cross-referenced here. Editors should bear in mind that such contributions need not necessarily be large. They may be made for the assistance of single individuals or small groups as well as for a whole people. An excellent illustration of such assistance is the fund raised by Chicago Swedes to assist Swedish and other victims of the San Francisco earthquake.

Gangs, syndicates, and similar organized criminal groups are to be given this code. Do not use this code unless you are certain that the note concerns organized groups. Crimes committed by several individuals are not necessarily organized crime. Organized prostitution should be given this code, but individual cases receive the next code .

Crimes committed for whatever reason, if they are not the result of the activities of especially organized bands, are to be given this code.

Naturally, we cannot list every crime committed, but particular attention must be paid to those which are spectacular and significant. Great care must be exercised, however, in cases involving juvenile delinquency. We are particularly anxious to get all available information on juvenile delinquency prior to 1905, when the reports of the Juvenile Court were first published.

Much of the material receiving this code will have to be cross-referenced elsewhere--under subsections of I B 3 (Family Organization) for example. Crime prevention activities among young people will often involve construction or playgrounds, supervised recreation, etc. Parents will also be advised by the press how to help their children avoid the pitfalls of the city. Especial care must be exercised to make certain that all items dealing with the prevention of crime, either through training, change of environment, or otherwise, receive this code or cross-reference.

In many communities there have been formed societies whose purpose, in whole or in part, is the aggrandizement of their particular nationalities. This may be accomplished through publicity, education, propaganda, or direct pressure upon governmental bodies. Such pressure may be used for many purposes: to secure legislative approval for projected monuments and memorials, obtain changes in the immigation laws and statues affecting aliens, or in an attempt to bring about changes in internal policy (national prohibition of alcoholic beverages). Persuasion has been exercised by petition, personal appeals, and the ballot. The power of the foreign-language communities and their nationalistic organizations is shown by the care with which they are treated by all politicians.

Editors should note that material relative to the interests and influence of the foreign-language communities in city affairs will receive an appropriate code or cross-reference in the I F section. Sometimes items coded I F 3 will be given this code (III B 1) as a cross-reference, or vice versa (when reference is to state policies). Material showing the effect upon national and state policies of societies with nationalistic aims should be placed here. "Nationalitistic" is interpreted as a primary devotion to a particular national or language group, although it is not meant to imply disloyalty to the United States.

This subsection is designed to include all source material on the activities of nationalistic societies other than that given other codes, and shall be used in other cases for cross-references.

It must be remembered, however, that all societies and organizations in the foreign-language communities are not nationalistic. Bodies whose aim is assimilation are not likely to pursue such aims; organizations whose purposes are international in scope in all probability will have little interest in nationalistic goals. Some political groups whose philosophy would appear not to be nationalistic, are such in fact. Thus, the Polish and the Lithuanian Socialist Parties , branches of parties in the homeland with little interest in American politics, were definitely nationalistic in character. Many Zionist bodies have a philosophy of Jewish nationalism.

Many items - for example, collections for relief of destitution in the homeland - which will be given other codes, including subdivisions of the assimilation section, should be cross-referenced to this one.

All conventions and conferences of nationalistic societies, purely local or nation-wide bodies with branches in this city, should receive this code or cross-reference. It includes the actual business of the meetings as well as the fact that such were held.

The purpose of this code is to permit the segregation of source material on conventions and conferences of all nationalistic organizations.

All material relative to the particular areas within their old homeland from which immigrants came are to be given this code or cross-reference. Thus, articles which show that the majority of Russians in Chicago came from the Russian Ukraine or the greater part of the Jews from Russian Poland would be placed here. Please note that this subsection does not refer to countries of origin but to localities within those countries.

This subsection is designed to include source material concerning the social classes and occupational groups in the country from which the immigrants came. Most of the Russians in Chicago were peasants; therefore, material bearing on their social class in the old country receives this code or cross-reference. Similar material relative to any other social class or occupational group furnishing immigrants to this nation should receive this code.

Occupational groups will generally be found to be subdivisions of a social class. Many Russians , classified as peasants under Russian law, were in actuality factory workers, either on landlord's estates or in the cities.

Source material on this subject and the one preceding is most important and care must be taken to provide necessary cross-references when another code is made the main one.